Rice may be the most universal ingredient in the world, serving as a cornerstone of the diet for billions in Asia. However, for much of Chinese history, rice faced a serious competitor, and entire cultures developed around a different cereal grain, one that has since diminished in significance: millet.

Millet is a cereal grain that behaves and tastes similarly to rice but has a rounder form. It is often used in porridge, stir-fries, or even fritters. In certain regions of China, millet is favoured as a food for pregnant women, with millet porridge being particularly gentle on the stomach. Despite this, it cannot rival the cultural importance of rice.

Yet, the domestication of millet, along with other cereals globally, stands as one of the most pivotal events in human history. Its domestication fundamentally altered natural landscapes and enabled humans to control the plants they consume, as opposed to surviving at the mercy of wild crops.

In northern China, near the Yellow River, millet thrived in its dry, arid environment, while rice dominated the South, benefiting from the warm humidity and heavy rains.

“[Millet] represents an early agricultural milestone in northern China, whereas rice signifies an early agricultural development in the middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River in southern China,” remarked Jiang Leping from the Zhejiang Provincial Institute of Relics and Archaeology.

“They emerged around 10,000 years ago, and there was no clear mutual substitution. The northern region later transitioned to wheat, while rice in the south later spread to Southeast Asia and numerous other parts of the world,” he told the SCMP.

The emergence of millet is significant because the Yellow River is often regarded as the cradle of Chinese civilisation. However, recent research has illuminated a more nuanced understanding of China’s formation.

If we adhere to the Yellow River narrative, one of the earliest cultures from that region, the Peiligang culture (7000 BC–5000 BC) , relied on millet as a vital component for their sustenance.

Archaeological evidence indicates that the Peiligang culture engaged in agriculture while also processing wild seeds, marking a crucial transition in human history from hunter-gatherers to early-stage farmers.

A 2020 study published in Vegetation History and Archaeobotany illustrated a domestication process spanning 2,000 to 3,000 years that was largely unconscious.

Dr Robert N. Spengler III, director of the Paleoethnobotany Laboratories at the Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History in Germany and not involved in that study, noted: “What this looked like initially is still hotly debated. In my opinion, some of the first steps in the [domestication] process included keeping herbivores away from the fields (simply by hunting) and burning away competitive plants or cutting away bushes to open more area,” he said.

“Much later in time, tilling, weeding, sowing, and most importantly, seed saving were adopted,” he said, adding that much of the domestication process remains unknown because of a lack of evidence.

In a separate study published in Cell Genomics in October 2025, researchers depicted how communities of early millet-farming populations intertwined and how millet spread through population movements rather than cultural exchanges.

“Evidence indicates that millet agriculture expanded significantly into neighbouring regions between 5,000 and 7,000 years ago,” the authors wrote.

Ultimately, millet-based societies, such as the Yangshao culture (5000 BC–3000 BC), experienced major technological advancements, contributing to the rise of early Chinese civilisation.

Millet thrived during the Shang dynasty (1600 BC–1046 BC), with foxtail millet (Setaria italica) appearing in 93.24 per cent of crop remains analysed in a study published in the Journal of Archaeological Science in March 2025.

The decline in millet’s popularity unfolded over centuries, but its status as a secondary crop is a relatively recent development.

A straightforward explanation for this decline is technological advancements, such as the water mill, which facilitated the rise of wheat.

In 1012, a new variety of rice known as “champa rice” was introduced to China, boasting a growing cycle of 100 days. Suddenly, rice could be harvested twice a year from the same plot of land, making it an appealing choice for farmers eager to boost production.

However, millet remained a staple for many northern households for centuries, serving as an affordable ingredient in their diets. Eventually, the advent of industrialisation made it much easier to transport rice over long distances, and millet could no longer compete with the abundance of rice.

During the post-industrial era, millet began to assume its modern status as a valuable ingredient, albeit not nearly as significant as its white-grained counterpart, which has become deeply embedded in the contemporary diet and shows no signs of waning popularity.